The following informal questions will guide
your studying
efforts towards the key conceptional ideas we
have covered and
will strenghen your
knowledge for the upcoming exam.
For all exams:
NOTE:
You should know specific vocabulary words and conventions we
have defined and not be afraid to use them!
YOU WILL BE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE DETAILED
INFORMATION
AS WELL AS TO APPLY PRACTICAL LOGIC FROM
CONCEPTS STUDIED....
MAKE SURE YOU PREPARE YOURSELF FOR MULTIPLE
TESTING
FORMATS AND STUDY YOUR MATERIAL KNOWING THAT
THERE WILL
BE t/f, FILL IN THE BLANKS, SHORT ANSWER, AS
WELL AS
MULTIPLE CHOICE. I WANT TO TEST YOU FOR YOUR KNOWLEDGE,
NOT YOUR ABILITY TO EXAMINE, THEREFORE THE
FORMAT IS
DIVERSE AND UNBIASED.
GOOD LUCK!!!!
First Exam Study Questions:
Omit the red questions for
examination purposes
1.
What is the major organizational plan of the body? And what
are the four primary tissues?
2. Delineate
between the 3 types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth)?
3.
What is the substructure of the neuron (functional unit of the nervous
system)?
4.
Anatomical classifications of epithelial tissue and 2 primary functions?
5.
Four types of connective tissue?
6.
Distinguish between ICF, ECF, plasma, and interstitial fluid?
7.
Organelle structure and function?
8. How
is the structure of the phospholipid bilayer important to physiological
functions?
9.
Identity and functions of specialized proteins in the latticework?
10.
Review of GENERAL principles of glycolysis, TCA, electron transport
chain?
11.
Cellular activities that require energy expenditure?
12.
How does the Chemiosmotic Hypothesis demonstrate several classic
physiological principles?
13.
How are organic molecules classified?
14.
What is the structure of proteins?
15.
What is the major function of nucleic acids?
16.
Review the genetic code, transcription, and translation?
17.
Sources of hazardous mutagens?
18.
How are molecules transported across and through the membrane?
19.
Which types of membrane transport requires energy? requires proteins?
requires a gradient? Name physiological mechanisms where transport
is operational?
20.
How does Einstein's Random Walk Theory relate to synaptic transmission?
21.
How do concentration gradients, size of NT, charge, and temperature
affect the rate of electronic signaling?
22.
Why are rbcs natural osmometers?
23. What are distinct characteristics of only
protein-mediated transport?
24. What does primary active transport have to do
with phosphorylation?
25. What are the generic regions of
specialization for a "typical" nerve cell
and where
are the anatomically distinct neuron types located in the body?
26. What physiological processes are in common
for all neuron types?
27. Do all cells that have a negative resting
potential have the
capacity to
fire an action potential? Why or why
not?
28. In what form is information encoded in the
nervous system? How does
changing the
action potential shape change the information?
If you were to block
certain
ionic conductances underlying the action potential
with drugs, how
would
various scenarios alter the encoded information?
29. What is absolute and relative refraction;
what type of ion channel blockers
(drug
targets) would affect rates of action potential firing?
30. Why do we clinically want to measure ion
channel physiology?
31.
What are some common antidepressant drugs, diet pills, and medicines for
reducing schizophrenic
hallucinations? Where do these medicines
target synaptic
transmission? Which drug is presently being recalled due to
its side effects
on heart valve damage?
32. What are the classic principles of the action
potential?
33. How are local currents distinct from action
potentials? If the former are
decrementing,
what is their physiological function?
34. Does the ALL-or-NONE principle contradict the
theory of recruitment?
35. Do all nerve cells have the same threshold
and space constant? Why or why not?
36. What is a myelinated axon? How does saltatory conduction velocity assist
the
nervous
system in terms of energy, space, and speed?
37. What is the physiological basis for Multiple
Sclerosis? What other environmental
factors
could induce similar patient symptoms?
38. Do Schwann cells or Oligodendrocytes assist
in regeneration? Discuss?
39. Compare and contrast electrical synapses with
the traditional chemical synapse.
40. Why do scientists know so much about the NMJ
and the ACh-R over that of all other
synapses?
41. How do microtubules assist in synaptic
transmission?
42. If you had a drug that blocked
-ligand-gated
ion channels
-presynaptic
uptake
-phosphorylation
-AChE
-anterograde
transport
How would
taking this "prescription" affect the excitability of your muscle?
43. What are the properties of neuroglia?
44. What are the four classes of neuroglia?
Which class
is important during a stroke (and why?),
Which class
is protective again brain damage?
Which
assists to increase the conduction velocity of nerve impulses?
Which
assists in immune responses?
45. Know the structure/functions of the major
brain regions
and which
common diseases are associated with which brain regions.
46. What are some common clinical causes of brain
damage?
47. What are the physiological mechanisms
underlying a
cerebrovascular
accident and what are some new
treatments
to prevent further neuronal cell death?
48. What are some modern technical devices used
to detect
brain tumors and what are
their
principles of operation?
49. What is plasticity and how is it related to
use-dependent
competition for cortical space?
50. What are some selective language disturbances
that occur
due to stroke or genetic defects?
51. How does the homunculus cartoon graphically
represent
our perceived input and responsive motor output?
How does it
demonstrate the somatotopic map?
52. What cell type does Parkinson's disease
target?
Be familiar
with clinical symptoms, cellular causes and
mechanisms,
putative causes of this disease, and
present as
well as controversial treatments of the disease.
How is this disease
related to Schizophrenia?
53. What cell type does Alzheimer's disease
target?
Be familiar
with clinical symptoms, cellular causes and
mechanisms. How is this disease associated with a metal?
54. More Computational Practice Problems –
Given the
following information, [Nao] = 300 mM, [Nai] = 35 mM,
[Ko] = 47
mM, [Ki] = 410 mM, [Clo] = 60 mM, [Cli] = 150 mM, PNa (active) =
10,000,
pNa (rest) = 0.5, pK = 10, pCl = 8.
A. What is the equilibrium potential for
chloride?
B. What is the height of the action potential?
C. What is the resting potential of the nerve if
it is an octopus?
D. Knowing B and C, will the nerve fire is there
is a disturbance the moves the potential to +30 mV?
E. If the nerve felt an electrical disturbance
of 300 pA at point 0, how much
current
would be remaining 100 um away if the length constant
was 50 um?
Answers:
A = +24 mV,
B = 56 mV, C = -23 mV, D = yes b/c the threshold is -11 mV, E = 41 pA
55. What is the reticular formation? How does it relate
to your
alertness? How can we measure alertness
and what
IS this
electrical signal? What are the levels
of consciousness?
What is an
electrocerebral silence?
56. Describe why sleep is an active process. Distinguish
between slow-wave
and paradoxical sleep (delta and beta
waves
respectively).
Second Exam
Study Questions:
57. Know the composition of the PNS and the 12
cranial nerves that originate
from the
brain stem. What is the map of associated
functions with the white
matter vs. the grey matter of the
spinal cord? What are the
components
of the
reflex arc?
1. How are muscles the contractile specialists
of the body?
2. How are muscles categorized structurally and
physiologically
in terms of function?
3. Know the anatomy of skeletal muscle from
the organ
down to the protein.
4. Know the substructure of the sarcomere basic
contractile
unit and
what changes occur during skeletal muscle contraction.
5. Describe fully and distinguish between the
Sliding
Filament
Theory and Excitation-Contraction Coupling.
6. How is the structure of the
"contractile" proteins
critical to
their physiological function?
Compare the
structure/function across actin and myosin.
7. How is the role of Ca2+ different in skeletal,
cardiac,
and smooth muscle?
8. Describe the steps of the cross-bridge cycle
for skeletal muscle?
How is it
critically different in smooth muscle?
How is
excitation-contraction coupling different
in skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac muscle?
9. Study fully the physiology of smooth muscle
relating
its
structure and function to that of cardiac and skeletal muscle.
10. Describe the components of whole muscle
contraction
(latency,
contraction, relaxation) and the cellular events
underlying
theses mechanics. What is a twitch,
summation,
tetany, or
fatigue?
11. Describe the motor unit, what is motor unit
recruitment?
How does the
motor unit and its recruitment change as we age?
12.
What are three cellular sources of fatigue?
What is recovery in physiological
terms?
What is muscle atrophy? What are some common sources
and how can we minimize atrophy?
13.
Describe the clinical pathology of Muscular Dystrophy,
the cellular and genetic basis for
the disease, and two newly
researched types of therapy for
treatment of the muscle atrophy.
14. What are intermediate filaments? How do they relate to
dense
bodies? How does smooth muscle contract
in the
absence of
sarcomere units and troponin?
15. Why can certain drugs and hormones modulate
the
activity of
smooth and cardiac muscles but are left ineffective
in
modulation of skeletal muscle contraction?
16. How can smooth muscle utilize more ATP per
cross-bridge
cycle than that of skeletal, and still be
deemed
economical in terms of energy expenditure?
What is the
latch phenomena (see text for greater
detail of
this term)?
17. Describe and contrast the two types of smooth
muscle
and the
parts of the body in which we would find them
functioning. Which utilizes a functional syncytium in
connection
with gap junction proteins?
18. For myogenic single unit smooth muscle, what
are the two
types of
spontaneous depolarizations found in these two self-excitable
cells? What kind of electrical activity would you
expect to find
in your
duodenum? your gall bladder? your heart?
your skin?
your
lungs? your hamstring?
19. Know the blood flow patterns of the heart and
the major
chambers and
vessels leading into and out of the heart.
Know
the 4 valves
of the heart and which are open during ventricular
relaxation
and which are open during ventricular contraction?
What is the
purpose of the valves and what is the anatomy
underlying
its function?
20. How is the heart 2 pumps in series divided by
a septum?
What two
major circulatory systems are involved?
Septal
defects can cause abnormal blood shunting....
where is
blood normally shunted to relieve pressure during
fetal
development? And what clinical situation
can develop
if normal
physiological events do not occur properly at and
shortly
after birth?
21. What two major nerves alter the myogenicity of the
cardiac
muscle? How? Know the electrical conduction
pathway in
the heart from origination of these two nerves
down through
the Pûrkinje fibers.
22. Distinguish between the action potentials in
a general
nerve and
those found in the myocardia. Why is the
duration
different
and to what advantage is this? How do
APs compare
in different
regions within the heart? What electrical
advantage
does this supply?
23. Be able to go back and forth between the
pressure changes
in the
heart, the four heart sounds, the EKG, and the blood
volume of
the heart to compare the time synchrony across these
diverse and
interrelated events.
24. Know which heart sounds correspond to the
opening or closing
of which
heart valves. Where is the best
resolution of the sound
on the human
body for each valve? What is a heart
murmur and what
are three
classic causes of a heart murmur?
25. Know what the electrical basis is for the EKG
and all the underlying
electrical
components are for each wave or spectrum.
How is the shape,
waveform,
and timing of the EKG used to diagnose heart disease states?
Be able to
distinguish the following arrhythmias: bradycardia,
tachycardia,
ectopic
pacemaker, ventricular tachycardia, flutter, atrial fibrillation,
and
ventricular fibrillation.
26. Define A-V heart block in terms of the EKG
P-R interval? What are the
physiological
changes that occur as the patient moves from 1st to 3rd degree
A-V
block? What does the EKG look like
during a MI (Myocardial Infarction)?
27. Be able to distinguish between the structural
and hence functional
differences
between the 3 major blood vessels in the body.
How does the
heart
coordinate with these vessels?
28. Understand the terminology used in heart
disease: atherosclerosis,
artheriosclerosis, ischemia, thrombosis, plaque, and embolism.
29. What is the cellular mechanism for the development
of plaque that commences
at the age
of 16-18 years of age? How are
low-density and high density lipo-
proteins
involved? How is the incidence of CHD
related to your levels
of
cholesterol?
30. How are exercise, menopause, pregnancy,
lactation, smoking, genetic defects,
and diet
related to your levels of LDL and/or HDL?
31. An occlusion of your coronary vessel is known
as what? Where is the most
damaging
location for an occlusion in your heart?
Why? An occlusion in any
vessel of
your brain is known as what? What are 5
common treatments we discussed
in lecture
to alleviate the oxygen deprivation caused by the occlusion?
32. Distinguish between a myocardial infarction
and myocardial ischemia? What
are some differences
and similarities in their clinical symptoms?
What is
the
physiological target of nitroglycerine and by what type of molecule?
33. What is the definition of cardiac
output? How does it relate to the rate
of parasympathetic and sympathetic
discharge? to stroke volume? to mean
arterial pressure? to EDV?
34. There are many mechanisms to regulate blood
volume and blood pressure. We
discussed
only the classic stretch receptors located in the "resistance
vessels".
Be familiar
with this reflex pathway and how it can bring both high and
low blood
pressure back to homeostatic conditions.
35. Describe some physical laws governing blood
flow. Specifically what roles
do the
length of the vessel, the viscosity of the blood, the radius of the vessel,
and the
total cross-sectional area of a class of vessels play in affecting
resistance
to blood flow? How would these then
affect cardiac output?
36. Be familiar with clinical implications for
non-laminar blood flow such as
functional
cardiac murmurs, anemic conditions, and hypertension. Understand
the
physiological basis for the ausculatory method you
use during routine blood
pressure
measurements.
37. Be able to calculate and recognize the
clinical implications for blood
pressure, peripheral resistance, cardiac
output, pulse pressure, and mean
arterial
pressure. You may bring a calculator if
you like.
Study
Questions for Exam 3:
Omit the red
questions for examination purposes
1. Know the equations for respiration and the
carbonic anhydrase shift. Know
the
"CO2/O2 shuttle system" that defines how CO2 is transported from
working
tissues to
the lungs and how O2 is transported from the lungs to working
tissues.
2. What are the chemical properties of oxygen
and carbon dioxide that require these
gases to be
transported? What is the structure of
the key vertebrate respiratory
pigment,
where do the gases attach to the molecule, and how does the molecule
change
configuration when it is saturated? Know
the difference between oxyhemo-
globin,
carbaminohemoglobin, and carboxyhemoglobin.
In what form are O2 and CO2
transported?
3. What
determines whether Hb will bind or dissociate with a gas molecule and
how does it
determine which gas? For this answer
think about the Haldene Effect,
partial
pressure, and the sigmoid kinetics of oxygen-hemoglobin affinity.
4. How would one calculate the PP for a given
gas, given the total atmospheric
pressure? What is the average PP for oxygen in the
pulmonary capillaries? In the
systemic capillaries? At half saturation? How is PP related to Hb-oxygen saturation
(describe
properties of the sigmoid curve)?
5. What is the Bohr Effect? How does the kinetics/affinity of Hb for
oxygen
change if
there are changes in PP CO2? pH? temperature?
2,3-DPG? CO poisoning?
or changes
in breathing/ventilation? Make sure that
you can identify which
of these
conditions would force oxygen to dissociate sooner than normal and which
would force
oxygen to be retained longer than normal.
Does this assist gas exchange?
Why or why
not?
6. What are the anatomical components and
functions of the conducting zone
versus the
respiratory zone of the lungs? Where is
the only true location
for gas
exchange in the lungs?
7. How does Boyle's Law and the movement of the
diaphragm and related muscles
surrounding
the pleural cavity explain the act of breathing in terms of
pressure
gradients? Know which muscles and nerves
are operational during the
inspiration
and expiration. Know which processes
require an input of ATP.
8. What is the physiological basis for asthma,
bronchitis, emphysema, lack
of
compliance, and SIDS? What is the
difference between an obstructive versus
a
restrictive lung disease? If provided a
set of "normal" spirometry values
and given a set
of values from a patient, be able to diagnose the likely
disease
state based on the provided lung capacity values.
9. Be very familiar and expect calculations for
spirometry!! They will be very
similar to what
you have already done for your homework questions.
************************************
Spirometry
Homework Problems:
1. If your
patient's TLC was 7.0L and VC was 5.5L, calculate
the residual
volume of air still in the lung?
ANSWER: 1.5L
2. If this same patient weighed 54 kg and had an
ERV of 2.5L and
an IRV of
2.5L, what would be the amount of fresh air brought
into the
lung with each inspiration?
ANSWER: 392 ml
3. If a patient has an IC of 3.5L and an IRV of
3.2L, weighs 60 kg
and an VA of
400 ml, how fast is this person breathing?
ANSWER: 2.2/min
4. What is the VC of an individual wih an IRV of 2.5L, an IC of 3L,
a FRC of
4L? Assume that the RV of this
individual is 2.5L (quite large).
ANSWER: 4.5L (there are several routes to this answer)
5. If you had a VC of 6L, a TV of 600 ml, a ERV
of 2L, what would your
Inspiratory
capacity be?
ANSWER: 4L
********************************
10. What are some basic renal processes and why
is the kidney so critical
to the operation
of so many organ systems?
11. What is the smallest functional unit of the
kidney? What are the
two types or
classes of these functional units and how do they differ
functionally
and anataomically?
12. What are the 5 major regions of the nephron? What is filtered in
each
region? What is the primary function
that is linked to each region?
What can
clinically disturb the function or filtration in a particular
region? What are the regulatory processes that occur
in each region
(hormonal? active transport? simple diffusion?)?
13. Compare the three major functions of the
kidney (GF, TR, and TS).
14. How is clearance of substances through the
glomerulus physically
and
structurally regulated by size and charge of the molecule?
15. Define GFR in terms of an equation and
functionally. How would the
follow
perturb GFR?.....exercise, hemorrhage, excess fluids, diarrhea,
burns, trama, kidney stones.
What is autoregulation and how does it
keep GFR in
register?
16. How is glucose reabsorption defined by a
carrier-limited reabsorption
process? How much is the renal threshold for
glucose? What is glucosuria?
How can
Diabetes mellitus be clinically determined?
17. Describe the physiological steps for
transepithelial transport for Na
across the
pct. How is transport of water
facilitated by this process?
18. Describe fully the process of countercurrent
multiplication in the
loop of
Henle.
19. Compare and contrast the function of
vasopressin and aldosterone in the
dct. How do protein
hormones operate differently than steroid hormones?
20. How is Na reabsorption functionally linked to
K secretion? Are they
always
coupled? Why is it so essential to
maintain regularity in the
level of
potassium in the plasma?
21. Understand the anatomy and function of
specialized regions within the JGA.
Know
intricately the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system and how this system
regulates
salt and
water balance.
22. Be familiar with the following complications
as they pertain to renal
failure such
as albuminuria, proteinuria, hypertension, and congestive heart
failure. What is athletic pseudonephritis? glomerulonephritis? Why is
activation
of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone an "inappropriate trigger"
during a cardiac
arrest?
23. What is the principle mechanism underlying
the artificial kidney?
Distinguish
between acute, chronic, and end-stage renal failure. What are
some
advantages and disadvantages for kidney dialysis?
Study
Questions for Final Exam (Digestive Physiology:
Omit the red
questions for examination purposes
1. What are the four primary processes of
digestion?
2. In each category of foodstuffs, what are the
absorbable
units and
intermediate breakdown products? How is
hydrolysis
involved in
this process?
3. Know the general anatomy of the GI
tract....which contains the
endocrine
glands? what comprises the muscularis
externa? What
is B.E.R.
and how does it contribute to motility along the GI
tract?
4. What are some secondary roles of mastication? Of taste
transduction?
5. What are the 2 phases of deglutition? The steps of the first phase?
The steps of
the second phase?
6. Know the chemistry behind acetylsalicyclic
acid (aspirin)
absorption
in the stomach.
7. What are the four "stops" of
gastric emptying? Describe
the hormonal
involvement and physiological mode of action
in each of
these. What are some additional factors
that
may alter
gastric motility?
8. Be familiar with the physiology of vomiting
and its causes.
9. Compare peristalsis, haustrations, and
segmentation in terms
of
electrophysiology, location, and function.
10. Know major stimulators and inhibitors of
gastrin/gastric acid secretion.
11. Discuss the physiology, prevention, and
treatment of peptic ulcers.
What are the
most common causes of ulceration?
12. What is the composition of bile? How does it relate to serum cholesterol
levels? How does digestion of fat relate to the
emulsification of fats?
What is
micellar formation and how does it aid either digestion or
emulsification?
13. Describe fully 2 medical complications
related to high bile
production...what
are the causes? what are the
treatments?
how can
these complications be diagnosed?
14. Describe the structure of the brush border
and the differential
absorption
of fats vs. proteins/carbohydrates?
15. Know fully the enzymology, E requirements, and transport
mechanisms
for the
incorporation of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats from the lumen
of the small
intestine into the human body. Be able
to master these to
the point of
manipulation and comparisons across the three.
16. What is digested in each region of the GI
tract? What is absorbed
in each
region of the GI tract?
17. Compare the functions of the cells of the
oxyntic mucosa of the
stomach
(surface epithelial, mucous neck cells, parietal cells,
chief cells)
with that of the cells comprising the brush border
of the small
intestine (brush border, Crypts of Lieberkuhn).
18. What role does the pancreas play in
digestion? Distinguish
between the
acinar cells, the duct cells, and the Islets of Langerhans.
19. What is a mass movement? Describe the defecation reflex; how
does this
relate to constipation or to appendicitis?
What are some
physiological
causes for diarrhea? What is Oral
Rehydration Therapy (ORT)?
Study
Questions for the Final Exam (Endocrinology and Reproductive Physiology):
1. Know the anatomy of the hypothalamus and
pituitary that comprise
the
hypothalamic endocrine axis. Know all
the hormones that are synthesized
and released
from this combined structure, their targets, and their points
of negative
or positive regulatory feedback.
2. Discuss the distinction between homeostasis
for the individual versus
for the
species in terms of genetic recombination via reproduction.
3. Know the physiological functions of all the
primary reproductive
organs for
each gender.
4.
What are specific determining factors of sex determination
located on the Y chromosome? Are both X chromosomes used for ovary genesis
and later for oogenesis? What gene on the X chromosome is essential
for male secondary sexual
characteristics and external genitalia?
5. Review the steps of gametogenesis for
spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Know all the
hormonal controls governing these processes.
6. Know the molecular targets of LH, FSH,
inhibin,
activin, follistatin,
GnRH,
FSH, hCG.
7. Discuss the pulsatile and periodic changes in
LH-FSH secretion and
how this is
best utilized for function across the genders?
What have been some discovers made
while trying to treat
infertility due to hyposecretion or
irregular control of the hypothalamic generator?
8. Be intricately familiar with the hormonal
regulation of the ovarian
cycle. Comprehend the physiology of oral
contraception. What are some benefits
and
associated risks with their use?
9.
What is the physiological role for ABP in spermatogenesis?
What is spermiation? How
long does it take to complete? How long
can sperm be
stored in the human body?
10. Know the structure/function relationships of
the human spermatozoan.
11. Discuss the ramifications of limited gamete
production and unequal
cytoplasmic
division during oogenesis? How will this
affect family
planning?
12. Describe the process of luteinization
and luteolysis of the
corpus
luteum?
13.
Be able to define complications of menstruation such as
amenorrhea, anovulatory cycles,
polycystic ovary syndrome and the
types of drugs we have developed as
our knowledge of menses
increased.
14. Describe how the uterine endometrium is
prepared for implantation?
15. Compare the male sex act with the female sex
act?
16. Know the plasma hormonal changes that occur
over the
course of gestation and menstration. Know what
the
physiological targets and biological effects of these hormones?
Which are
secreted maternally? Which placentally?
17. What is the female's body response to
pregnancy?
18. What are some guidelines for exercise during
pregnancy?
19. What is the suckling reflex of lactation?
20. What is the composition of human milk? What is colostrum?
How much
milk is produced?
21. What are some of the benefits of breast
feeding and
why should
there be better patient education in this
area?
22. State some common causes of male and female
infertility?
What are the
most frequent problems and how are they
clinically
diagnosed?